Politics of on‐demand food delivery: Policy design and the power of algorithms

In this article, we examine the politics of on-demand food delivery using insights from theory social construction and policy design. On-demand is a service built on algorithm-based technology known for its precarity physical risks couriers. We compare how sector regulated observable effects in two Asia-Pacific cities with contrasting courier profiles: Melbourne, Australia (international students), Singapore (citizens, permanent residents). show couriers other subsystems (migration, higher education, citizenship) affects debates their fair treatment sector. By interrogating digitally enabled versions reality, argue embracing design perspective to identify reforms could be introduced change-resistant sectors. En este artículo, examinamos la política de entrega alimentos pedido utilizando conocimientos teoría construcción y el diseño políticas. La es un servicio basado en tecnología basada algoritmos conocida por su precariedad riesgos físicos para los mensajeros. Comparamos cómo se regula sus efectos observables dos ciudades Asia-Pacífico con perfiles mensajería contrastantes: (estudiantes internacionales) Singapur (ciudadanos, residentes permanentes). Mostramos mensajeros otros subsistemas políticas (migración, educación superior, ciudadanía) afecta sobre trato justo pedido. Al cuestionar las versiones realidad habilitadas digitalmente, defendemos adopción una perspectiva identificar podrían introducir reformas sectores resistentes al cambio. 本文中，我们使用社会建构和政策设计理论来分析按需送餐之政治。按需送餐是一项建立在基于算法技术之上的服务，该服务对送餐员带来不稳定性和身体风险，这是为人熟知的。我们比较了按需送餐行业的监管方式及其在两个亚太城市的明显影响，这两个城市的送餐员概况截然不同:澳大利亚墨尔本的送餐员为国际学生，新加坡的送餐员为当地公民和永久居民。我们展示了其他政策子系统(移民、高等教育、公民身份)中对送餐员的社会建构如何影响关于“送餐员在按需送餐行业中的公平待遇”的辩论。通过分析数字化现实版本的政治，我们主张透过设计视角来确定如何在抵制变革的部门中引入改革。 has become politically salient recent years as makers activists around world demand greater labor protection (Cornwell, 2022; Craig, Poh, 2022). Our research question is: How does sectors (e.g., migration, education) affect sector? addressing question, our study makes conceptual empirical contributions multiple fields. For scientists, help us make sense group are differentiated between those who “deserving” “undeserving.” This differentiation speaks importance attending geographers, sociologists, urban studies scholars, offer algorithms' power. point policies adopted education migration practices concerning citizenship amplify or curtail negative algorithmic management interested sector, provide less examined case Asia-Pacific—Melbourne Singapore—for comparison. At least three features distinguish today that it an excellent Artificial Intelligence (AI). First, where algorithms explicitly designed play central role. instance, determine which eateries available based users' geolocation real-time demand. Algorithms also find potential customers previous performance geolocation. then rank performances customer feedback indicators (Huang, 2022a; van Doorn, 2020). The centrality these interactions allows interrogate reality. Second, most considered “part-time” even though working conditions have “full-time” without corresponding compensation benefits 2022b). These tend immigrant minority background, historically possessed power (cf. Cant, 2019; Galière, 2020; Sun, 2019). Standing (2012, p. 589) sees belonging precariats, “millions people scattered world, living insecure jobs life.” Understanding contribute empowering actors while disempowering others should engage good AI governance Giest & Samuels, Finally, growing economy, hiring highly skilled programmers develop fine-tune better performance, welcoming applications couriers-to-be While been phenomenon before COVID-19 pandemic, was pandemic driven platform economy (Mathews et al., heart Specifically, configure reconfigure relationships different groups. Examining developments thus offers opportunity reflect context, especially discussions proceed follows. first review academic parse out discussed examined. Scholars agree need intervention address power, but efforts not yet led widespread reforms. It here sciences much offer. propose exploring role distribution starting developing interventions. Next, introduce applying them Melbourne Singapore. organized exploratory clear limitations. unveiling (i.e., about findings, add literature (ideational) capitalism, hint at sectoral outside effecting so doing, findings highlight bidirectional relationship (see Béland conclude by discussing implications policy. fascinated scientists. According Sun (2019, 311), there general approaches studying algorithms. approach explores algorithms, encourages scholars think “about powerful ways notions ideas algorithm circulate through world” (Beer, 2017, 2). order understand Beer (2017, 2) argues, analyze “broader rationalities, knowledge-making norms” project. second attempts “through everyday life” (Sun, 2019, 311). Those embrace more “political-economic critiques,” “how experienced, imagined, reshaped ‘everyday lived experiences’” What unites groups consensus fundamentally contributed changing human behavior (Bucher, 2018; Kitchin, 2017). Research into modern confirmed apps altered consume developed West (Bissell, Dolibog, see commentary Nunn, 2021), emerging economies (Ahmed Ahmed, Chotigo Kadono, Huang, Lage Rodrigues, 2021; But grown beyond focus consumer behavior. section, prominent themes existing consider what they tell sites (where deliveries made?), profiles (who delivers?), (what impact?). Most city settings (Marrone Peterlongo, because digital infrastructures robust transportation essential located (Cant, comparatively denser infrastructural set-up found presents owners, consumers, empowered, former having access sell purchase services, latter work opportunities. same time, Marrone Peterlongo (2020) work, occupy ambivalent unique position: workers “platform capitalist” exploited, rise against exploitative conditions. Courier comparative ease joining platforms providers. his first-hand account Deliveroo UK, Cant pp. 96–97) identifies fellow either new migrants young students. demographic data limited, pointed males dominating 2022b, 358; 2021, 437; Mathews 313). Migrants students faced barriers entering established formal market require demonstrable high linguistic skills, appropriate authorization, commitment fixed hours. Doorn al. (2020, 3) argued simultaneously enables easy opportunities exploiting giving “a disproportionate amount economic risk” 2022b; Lee, Moore, contributes upholding socio-economic class hierarchies Woodcock, Studies consistently Terms such “algorithmic management” (Galière, 2019), control” Ivanova 2018), “despotism” 2022b), “new sweatshops” (Schillebeeckx, 2021) used describe (2018, 34) explain control “information asymmetries, performance-based pay bonuses, internal competition shifts, automated notification systems.” Huang (2022b, 357) notes “face job, instable income racialized identity” Studying black Brazil, Rodrigues (2021, 438–439) dropped during despite average 9–12 h per day “being perceived identified criminal appearance.” Stark Pais 47) us, owners “co-opt providers users, enrolling managerial authority delegated them.” Increased awareness couriers' resulted resistance movements techniques. Strikes solidarity taken place United Kingdom (Cant Tassinari Maccarrone, 2020), Italy (Cini Goldmann, New York (Lee, 2018). Popan (2021) Manchester WhatsApp express share tactics. Food China use chat fight by, informally asking “colleagues friends complete WeChat group, virtual media community colleagues villagers” 319). formally request transfer, 319) noted “When met each restaurants, talked orders transferred save time battery e-bikes.” veteran Sun's 320) “usually chose route trusted instead recommended algorithm.” study, Yu (2022, 117–119) strategies embraced, ranging sharing traffic news literacy. plight generated among needs differently. successfully manipulated institutional discourse framing Coiquaud Morissette, Seidl, Particularly relevant depiction freelancers, gig workers, contractors “non-employees” enable companies disrupt status penetrate (Coiquaud Thelen, Prassl (2018) tells discursive breakthrough rests success narrative creates false divide employment flexible emphasizing value “Fourth Industrial Revolution” (Schwab, Rosenblat points “myth technological exceptionalism” circumvent regulatory control. can generally change-resistant, ripe reform when co-opted considerations. examining “politics effects” areas likely succeed politics. next turn begin discussion. Policy process “policymakers try complexity reality deciding best solve problems collective, including recommending putting instruments suited tackle problems” (Capano Howlett, 2022, 73). A orientates researchers processes instrument selection implementation (Peters analytical focusses attention power: frames defines problem, promotes associated solutions, excludes alternatives. One strand scholarship attends (Ingram 2007; Pierce 2014; Schneider Ingram, 1993; Sidney, 2009). seeks “illuminate designs shape policy's targeted population, relationship, ‘feeds forward’ democracy” (Pierce 2014, knowledge plays positive connotations “target populations,” dividing get “benefits” (“deserving,” positively constructed) receive “burdens” (“undeserving,” negatively 2007). short, matters determines Insights assessing empowered disempowered, how. article Classified along dimensions deserving undeserving, lacking power), proposes four categories populations” respective political powers: advantaged, contenders, dependents, deviants advantaged “disproportionate few burdens” 5); politically, powerful. Examples include “small businesses, homeowners, first-responder personnel, often idealized family composed married man woman couple children” 2007, 101); tax breaks credits examples public receives. contenders “negatively constructed,” like burdens, received private secret 5). Classic contender “Polluting industries, gun manufacturers, ‘big oil,’ Washington lobbyists, radical conservative activists” 102). As name suggests, strive mobilization contexts allow achieve status. dependents “positively “expected rhetorical underfunded hidden “Widows, orphans, mentally handicapped, families poverty, homeless, students, many unfortunates” 103); federal student loans low-income families. Dependents limited constructed expected no “include suspected actual terrorists, criminals, illegal immigrants, drug dealers usually computer hackers, sex offenders, spies, leakers official secrets, others” 103). Deviants lack seen heuristic, guiding understanding constructs divides according burdens. Table 1 summarizes insights. key proposition “feeds forward” democratic participation populations.” Here, “feeding refers returns generates reinforce dynamics treatments 2014). highlighting significance “feed forward effects,” tradition aim draw may perpetuate societal differences, elevating some suppressing others/most. them, changes take do occur. re-categorized: “(i) perception target population being undeserving vice versa, (ii) external dramatic events, (iii) opportunities, and/or (iv) skillful manipulation entrepreneurs” 17). Japanese immigrants changed World War II war, after DiAlto (2005) attributes strong persistent Americans US war “Americanness” responsible shifting population” Another example homosexual men categorized 1980s late 1990s mobilizing educating AIDs caused ushering protect disempowered skewed AI-powered industries. accounting change already occurred), practitioners preoccupied effect change. both under occurs. contexts, involved claims-making, claims articulated justified, socially would step recognize constructions group. main provider nuclear (“deserving”), undocumented migrant-seeking (“undeserving”), (“deserving” “undeserving”). reconciled whether remains resistant receptive attracting entrepreneurs strategize Put simply, fields “ideational power” (Carstensen Schmidt, 2016) influence discursive-political strategies. methodology outline empirically proposition. policies, relations diverse visible affected delivery: Like Section “Power delivery”), concerns constitute overlooked protection. question—“How sector?”—we studies. remain ongoing. because, Davis Sinha Uber, domestic filter ride-hailing innovations technologies generate “varieties Uberization.” unit analysis cities. centers thrives. departs state-centric administration natural long state critique Acuto, 2013; Ljungkvist, 2017; Sassen, 1991). Kangas (2017) conceptualizes global possessing descriptive prescriptive elements. Descriptively, “an imago mundi—a term stands centralisation economy's command functions” (Kangas, 532; cf. Prescriptively, fabrica mundi, “prescriptive, world-making capacity” 532). able own image, extremely determining future regulated. city-level development attempt explore studies, following reasons. delivery. capital Victoria, Australia, city-state, globally connected world-class transport (City Smart Nation Singapore, affluent services widely consumed, pandemic. 2020 survey 77% reported top app (Statista, 31), 61% indicated ordered only 1% reporting never period (Müller, 2021). No statistics exist than 5.5 million Australians ages 14 above increase 3.9 2019 3.3 2018 (Roy Morgan, selected freelancers independent “contract service” rather (Fair Work Act, 2009; Independent Contractors 2006; Employment market. They untethered rules obligations full-time entitled protections afforded employees. criticized assumption economically active exploitation (organizationally, algorithms) Other supports view analyses; equally important acknowledge markets regulations define certain terms, deviating expectations. decided differed aspect: Melbourne's case, anyone authorized courier. contrast, citizens residents allowed distinction marks typical outlier terms 2 provides overview Anyone (full part-time) Comparing present More importantly, assess (if all), calling reforms, articulate reform. documents, reports, published 2012 2022. concentrate entered market, rapidly expanded notable today, experienced transformation. sources onsite observations throughout analyses below international citizens/residents predate rapid expansion shaped cities, pathways current recently graduated Australian post-study visa stay country 18–48 months purportedly gain experience